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in Chemistry by (75 points)
Answer all questions.

1. a. What is an orbital?

b. Draw the shapes of the 1S, 2S, 2Px , 2Py and 2Pz orbitals.

 2. Write comprehensively on the development of the periodic table.

 3. Define the following:

a. Electronegativity

b. Electropositivity

c. Ionization energy

d. Ionic strength

e. Atomic radius

f. Metallic character

g. Lattice energy

h. Inert pair effect

i. Bond energy

j. Oxidation state.

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1 Answer

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1. (a) Orbital, in chemistry and physics, a mathematical expression, called a wave function, that describes properties characteristic of no more than two electrons in the vicinity of an atomic nucleus or of a system of nuclei as in a molecule.

3. (a) Electronegativity is a measure of an atom's ability to attract shared electrons to itself. On the periodic table, electronegativity generally increases as you move from left to right across a period and decreases as you move down a group.

(b) Electropositivity can be defined as the tendency of an atom to donate electrons and form positively charged cations. This property is primarily exhibited by metallic elements, especially the alkali metals and the alkaline earth metals.

(c) Ionization energy is simple terms can be described as a measure of the difficulty in removing an electron from an atom or ion or the tendency of an atom or ion to surrender an electron. The loss of electron usually happens in the ground state of the chemical species.

(d) The ionic strength is an expression of the effect of ions in solution on the electrostatic potential. 

(e) Atomic radius is the distance from the centre of the nucleus to the outermost shell containing electrons. In other words, it is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the point up to which the density of the electron cloud is maximum.

(f) Metallic character refers to the level of reactivity of a metal. Metals tend to lose electrons in chemical reactions, as indicated by their low ionization energies. Within a compound, metal atoms have relatively low attraction for electrons, as indicated by their low electronegativities.

(g) Lattice energy is defined as the energy required to separate a mole of an ionic solid into gaseous ions. Lattice energy cannot be measured empirically, but it can be calculated using electrostatics or estimated using the Born-Haber cycle.

(h) Inert pair effect cause the variable valency of elements. For example, both tin and lead show +2 and +4 oxidation state due to inert pair effect. 'Tl' element shows +3 and +1 oxidation state for same cause. For example, +5 oxidation state of Bi is less stable than +3 oxidation state of bismuth element.

(i) Bond energy (E) is defined as the amount of energy required to break apart a mole of molecules into its component atoms. It is a measure of the strength of a chemical bondBond energy is also known as bond enthalpy (H) or simply as bond strength.

(j) Oxidation state indicates the degree of oxidation for an atom in a chemical compound; it is the hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all bonds to atoms of different elements were completely ionic. Oxidation states are typically represented by integers, which can be positive, negative, or zero.

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